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CS_Ramos

Os Grandes ramos das Ciências Sociais

Ciências sociais que se especializaram num determinado aspecto da vida social

Ciência Política 

Ocupa-se dos factos relacionados com o funcionamento do Estado. Estuda os fenómenos ligados ao exercício do poder, à forma como o Estado fixa os valores, e de como é definido por três elementos: um território, um povo e um poder político, que se subdivide em governantes (aqueles que governam) e governados. A Ciência Política estuda, pois, a forma como é estabelecida a diferença entre quem governa e quem é governado.

Economia 
O verdadeiro objecto de estudo da Economia são as leis de produção, repartições e o consumo dos bens escassos necessários à satisfação das necessidades humanas.

A Economia conheceu um maior desenvolvimento durante o século XVIII (1758) quando o Doutor Quesnay publicou Tableau Economique, um livro que retractava a forma como as riquezas circulavam na sociedade. Doutor Quesnay fundou a escola fisiocrática que tem a particularidade de assumir que só a terra é capaz de gerar riqueza, que todos os outros trabalhos existentes são meras transformações das riquezas pela terra fornecidas.

 

Demografia 
É o estudo quantitativo do elemento população. É uma ciência relativamente recente quando comparada com a Economia. A primeira referência a Demografia ocorre durante o século XIX numa obra de Achille Guillard, Élements de statistique humaine ou demographie comparée (1855). A Demografia é hoje uma ciência em crescente popularidade.

O objecto de estudo da Demografia divide-se em:

Estrutura da População 


Arranjo Espacial: forma como a população está distribuída no espaço. Existe uma desigual distribuição de população, pois existem vários factores que condicionam essa distribuição. Prevê-se que para lá do ano 2000 mais de 50% da população seja urbana. 
Composição da População: são as características da população, que se subdividem em: 

- composição etária: num país subdesenvolvido há entre 40 a 50% de jovens, num país desenvolvido a situação é inversa.

- razão de sexo: sexratio, o número de homens existentes para cada mulher. Nascem muitos mais homens do que mulheres, no entanto aqueles têm grande dificuldade em sobreviver durante a infância, verificando-se uma elevada taxa de mortalidade masculina. Assim, o número de mulheres é superior ao número de homens.

- sistema matrimonial: estado civil.

- alfabetização: em Portugal existem cerca de 15% de analfabetos, que são maioritariamente idosos.

- taxa de actividade económica: com a industrialização é natural que as mulheres assumam uma posição mais autónoma dentro da sociedade, o que justifica a baixa da natalidade.

Movimento da População 


Mortalidade: desde sempre que se procuram formas para se evitar a morte ou para adiar a morte. Só a partir do século XIX se verifica um aumento da esperança média de vida, devido ao melhoramento das condições de vida. Na Europa morrem 10 pessoas em cada 1000. 
Natalidade: sempre existiu uma elevada taxa de natalidade, e só no século XIX se verifica uma baixa da natalidade, mais precisamente no fim dos anos 50 e 60 (em Portugal só depois de 1974). O que se verifica é que as mulheres deixaram de ter muitos filhos, antes verificava-se o nascimento de 200 mil crianças por ano e agora o número é de 114 mil por ano. Levanta-se, então, o problema de como fazer aumentar o número de filhos: em França, depois de 1945, dava-se por mês mais de 35% do ordenado do operário metalúrgico por cada filho, contudo, o número de filhos não disparou. 

Movimentos Migratórios: antigamente, pessoas oriundas de outros países vinham preencher os lugares de um determinado país, que os naturais desse país não queriam preencher, como foi o caso da Alemanha. Agora verifica-se o contrário. Em 70, os alemães não queriam desempenhar determinadas funções consideradas menos dignas, como era trabalhar nas oficinas. Então, recrutava-se turcos e gregos que, após lá trabalharem durante vários anos, ficavam com os mesmos direitos que os alemães. Mas agora os alemães já querem desempenhar essas funções, levantando-se o problema “quem é que se despede”. Sob o ponto de vista dos recursos humanos, tem que se dar prioridade a quem já lá estava antes, ou seja, aos turcos e aos gregos. Sob o ponto de vista do nacionalismo, tem que se dar prioridade aos naturais do país, ou seja, aos alemães.

Se houvesse uma elevada taxa de natalidade nada disto aconteceria, pois nunca se iria sentir a necessidade de recrutar esforços humanos a outros países.

Psicologia Social 

Distingue-se da Psicologia Tradicional porque esta estuda apenas o comportamento e os processos mentais de um indivíduo enquanto ser único (consciência, memória e percepção). O que a Psicologia Social estuda é o comportamento dos indivíduos em sociedade. Os indivíduos, enquanto membros da sociedade, afectam e são afectados por grupos.

A Psicologia Social nasceu em 1876, numa altura em que ficaram célebres as discussões determinantes do comportamento. Tentava-se descobrir qual era a influência que a hereditariedade e o meio ambiente tinham na formação dos comportamentos dos indivíduos.

O professor César Lombroso publicou um livro, O Homem Delinquente, em que afirmava que era a hereditariedade que determinava o comportamento dos indivíduos. Considerava que os estigmas de degenerescência e as assimetrias corporais eram características de indivíduos criminosos. Assim, Lombroso defendia a ideia de que todas essas pessoas não podiam viver em sociedade, pelo que tinham de ser presas. Pois se assim não fosse, haveria sempre a possibilidade dessas pessoas cometerem outros crimes.

Em 1877, Dugdale e Goddard escreveram duas monografias sobre o estudo das famílias, incluindo a genologia (ascendentes). Dugdale escreveu sobre uma família denominada The Jukes, constituída por cerca de 800 elementos, dos quais centenas eram vagabundos e mendigos e 74 eram criminosos. Goddard escreveu sobre uma família denominada Kalikaks, cujos membros não apresentavam comportamentos medíocres. Ambos os autores procuravam provas para explicar a questão da hereditariedade.

Em 1890, Grabiel Tarde (juiz) escreve Leis de Imitação, onde afirma que o comportamento dos indivíduos é influenciado pelo meio ambiente em que vivem. Grande parte dos condenados vivem em condições muito promíscuas e não se integram na sociedade, pois seguem o mau exemplo daqueles que os rodeiam.

A Psicologia Social nasceu desta querela entre os defensores da hereditariedade e os do meio ambiente. A partir do início do século XIX publicam-se as primeiras obras de Psicologia Social, primeiro com o autor Cooley, em 1902, e mais tarde com os autores McDougall e Ross, em 1908. A Psicologia Social desenvolve-se em consonância com as ciências de laboratório técnicas: um indivíduo quer estudar o sono e as suas fases, então, observa um outro indivíduo durante o sono e conclui que durante a fase do sono em que se sonha os olhos movimentam-se rapidamente (REM - Rapid Eyes Moves), e durante a fase do sono em que não se sonha os olhos não se movimentam rapidamente (NREM - No Rapid Eyes Moves). Concluiu, ainda, que todas as pessoas sonham todas as noites. Se esta técnica não tivesse sido desenvolvida não se sabia nada sobre o sono.

NOTA: O método da Psicologia Social é, por excelência, o método experimental.

Linguística 
É a ciência que se ocupa do estudo e da estrutura e transformação das línguas. Tem sido objecto de estudo desde o século XIX, quando se autonomiza como ciência social. Deve muito à escola estruturalista.

Semiologia 
É a ciência que estuda, para além da linguagem, todos os sistemas de signos ou símbolos de que os homens se servem para comunicar entre si.

Roland Barthes procurou estudar o conteúdo divulgado pelos meios de comunicação de massa, que podem ser estudados através da sua linguagem - metalinguagem.

Charles Morris em vez do termo Semiologia usa o termo Semiótica.

Geografia Humana 
Esta ciência dedica-se ao estudo da relação entre o modo de vida dos indivíduos em sociedade e a paisagem na qual se inscreve a sua acção.

O termo Geografia é utilizado desde tempos remotos, mas deve o seu actual significado à obra de Alexandre Humboldt e Charles Ritter, este último deu origem à escola geográfica alemã no século XVIII.

Existem duas concepções de Geografia Humana, uma de Ratzel e outra de Vidal de la Blache. Até ao fim do século XIX as concepções incidiam numa concepção determinista, que significa que o meio físico exerce um efeito determinante na distribuição espacial. O domínio tecnológico não é tão evidente como é hoje, o que levou Ratzel a criar a Antropogeografia (concepção determinante sobre as populações).

Foi ainda criada a Escola Possibilista, que deve a sua fundação à obra póstuma de Vidal de la Blache, concluída por Emanuel de Mortonne, e publicada em 1921. Obra esta que afirma que o Homem, dadas as condições, pode modificar a seu favor o meio ambiente. É a concepção da terra moldável.

Para além da Geografia Humana há ainda a Geografia Física, embora esta última não seja uma ciência social.

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Links relacionados

Online Encyclopedias

Believe it or not, other online encyclopedias besides the
Wikipedia
exist. Here are some of the better ones.

 

  1. Citizendium – An open
    wiki founded by Wikipedia’s Larry Sanger, Citizendium falls somewhere between
    Wikipedia’s totally open source package and Scholarpedia’s invite-only method.
    Citizendium is peer-reviewed, but not as strictly as Scholarpedia.

  2. Digital Universe
    – A directory and encyclopedia organized into
    subject specific portals. Their
    site is focused on accuracy and accessibility.

  3. Encyclopedia Britannica
    Online
     – This site doesn’t follow the wiki model at all, but it is a
    reliable and citable source for facts. Every volume of the Encyclopedia
    Britannica exists here, in an online format with easy to use search tools. A
    year’s subscription will set
    your back around $70.

  4. Encyclopedia.com –
    When you search at encyclopedia.com, you can find information, definitions of
    words, and other facts by searching dozens of online reference tools at the same
    time. Search the Columbia Encyclopedia, Webster’s New
    world Dictionary, medical
    reference books, and tons of other resources with a single search.

  5. FactMonster – A
    reference source for kids, FactMonster contains basic details on subjects like
    math, geography, and sports. The site also includes games and puzzles to keep
    the mood light.

  6. Infoplease -This
    online encyclopedia is totally free thanks to Pearson Education, a textbook
    distributor. Information at Infoplease comes from reliable sources like the
    Random House Unabridged Dictionary. It’s not open source like Wikipedia,
    but it is a respected collection of data.

  7. RefDesk – Calling itself a
    “fact check for the Internet,” RefDesk collects different online resources under
    one roof, allowing you to search the Internet, check newspaper headlines, look
    info up on various encyclopedias and dictionaries, and read the news all from
    the same site.

  8. Scholarpedia –
    Built on the same package as Wikipedia, MediaWiki, Scholarpedia is an
    invitation-only encyclopedia site edited by experts. Unlike Wikipedia,
    Scholarpedia is peer-reviewed and all content is attributed to specific authors.

     

  9. Vaughn’s 1
    Pagers
     – A collection of general reference material based on whatever Vaughn
    Aubuchon, the author, is interested in at any given time. Much of the material
    summarizes information that isn’t available elsewhere on the Internet, which
    makes it even more valuable.

  10. World Book
    Online
     – This one requires a subscription, but it’s an excellent
    encyclopedia that most people of my generation are already familiar with. This
    is an especially good resource for younger students and researchers.

Science & Math Reference Websites

The Internet has traditionally
been a hangout for geeks and nerds, so it’s no surprise that science and math reference websites are easy to find.

 

  1. Encyclopedia of Astronomy
    and Astrophysics
     – On the Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics, you
    can look up definitions of astronomy terms and details about famous astronomers.

     

  2. Encyclopedia of  –
    A totally free expert reviewed and edited
    Earthcollection of resources about the
    earth, its environment, its history, and its future. Encyclopedia of Earth is
    made up mostly of scholarly articles and reviews of everything you could ever
    learn about the Earth.

  3. Encyclopedia of Life – Enter
    the name of a living thing you want to learn more about in Encyclopedia of
    Life’s search box, and bang you’ve got a wealth of knowledge at your fingertips.
    A big archive of info on every sort of plant, animal, fungus, and bacteria
    living on Earth.

  4. HowStuffWorks – Not
    just good for factual information, HowStuffWorks can fill you in on all the
    details about the inner workings of your toaster or that nuclear power plant in
    your neighborhood.

  5. The Internet Encyclopedia of Science – Astronomer David
    Darling runs this collection of A-Z references on a huge collection of science
    topics. The Internet Encyclopedia of Science also includes the Encyclopedia of
    Alternative Energy & Sustainable Living and the Encyclopedia of History.

  6. NatureServe
    Explorer
     – Calling itself “an online encyclopedia of life,” NatureServe
    Explorer lets you look up information on every species of bird, insect, mammal,
    and more.

  7. Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences – This site is
    designed to be easily searchable, and for math nerds of all varieties there’s no

    easier way to look up information on number sequences.

  8. Physics
    Encyclopedia
     – Physics Encyclopedia is the place to go for definitions of
    physics terms and links to physics resources online.

  9. PhysLink.com – As the
    science of physics becomes more relevant, it’s more difficult to stay up to date
    on things like string theory. This site is a global resource for all things
    physics.

  10. PlantCare.com – With a
    plant encyclopedia and active user forum, plantcare.com is the place to go to
    learn about plants and their proper care and maintenance.

Question & Answer Sites

Most question &
answer sites are of little use to the academic researcher, but for less
serious questions and information, they can be useful alternatives to the Wikipedia.

 

  1. AllExperts – The
    first large-scale question and answer site online, AllExperts was founded in
    1998 and is still going strong. If you have a question that needs the help of an
    expert, AllExperts is what you need to get your answer free of charge.

  2. Answerbag – Another
    user contributed question and answer site with a large archive. Questions here
    seem to focus on medical, regional shopping, and how to questions. Answerbag is
    a great place to start your search if you have a specific question.

  3. AOLAnswers – AOLAnswers
    used to be called Yedda. The name has changed. but the site is the same. Ask any
    question on any topic and get personalized answers from real people.

  4. Ask a Librarian –
    The coolest question and answer site online, Ask a Librarian allows you to ask
    librarians live questions as long as they pertain to research, literature, or
    other library topics. Many categories have a “live chat” feature connecting you
    to a librarian of the Library of Congress directly.

  5. Askville – Amazon’s
    Askville is a very active question and answer site with Amazon’s large
    membership as its answer base.

  6. Microsoft Live QnA – At
    Microsoft Live QnA, you can ask any question you want and hope for some serious
    answers, although the majority of responses are pranks or on the silly side.

  7. Refseek – A great directory of question and answer sites both
    small and large, general and topic-specific.

  8. Popular blogger and writer Cecil
     –The Straight Dope
    has been running The Straight Dope for
    years, featuring email questions about anything you can imagine. Cecil Adams and
    others answer one big question a week and feature it on the main page. The
    archive is massive. Want to know the purpose of hiccoughs or the average weight
    of airplane food? Cecil Adams is the guy to ask.
    Adams

  9. wiseGEEK – WiseGEEK
    contains 30,000+ articles on tech related questions, from What Is a Cell Phone
    to how to guides on fixing your laptop or handheld device.

  10. Yahoo! Answers – User
    contributed questions and answers on every topic under the sun. This Yahoo!

    sponsored site allows anyone to post a question or an answer, and allows the
    person asking the question to rank and vote on the responses. Part social media
    site, part question and answer site.

Library Sites

Library sites offer some of the most reliable reference material on the Internet. These are not just websites for actual libraries–some of them are virtual Internet libraries that include the full text of various books.

 

  1. eBrary – More
    than 20,000 full books are available at eBrary on every topic from academic
    journals to and general interest texts. Accessing eBrary is like visiting a
    major university library from your home.

  2. The Free Library
    – Over 18,000,000 books and articles make up the collection of The Free Library.

  3. ibiblio – ibiblio is a
    massive collection of information in the public domain. Browse thousands of
    maps, photos, books, and other links all for free.

  4. Internet Public Library –
    The closest thing to a real library online, Internet Public Library is a
    collection of reference materials and links, The site even has an awesome “ask a
    librarian” section where you can get real answers from IPL employees.

  5. LibrarySpot – This
    collection of library resources is similar to eBrary but geared toward students.
    Links to free encyclopedias and other reference materials make LibrarySpot a must-bookmark site for students.

  6. Literature.org –
    Looking for an online copy of some of the world’s great literature?
    Literature.org hosts classic books from writers as diverse as Willa Cather,
    Stephen Crane, and Lucy Maude Montgomery.

  7. The Online
    Books Page
     – Thousands of books are available to read and download for free, but without The Online Books Page, finding them can be a hassle. The Online Books Page gathers them all in one searchable index.

  8. Oxford Journals –
    A collection of links to every journal published by Oxford University Press,
    from Alcohol & Alcoholism to the Yearbook of European Law. Each journal has
    several articles that are free for viewing and downloading.

  9. Questia – Questia hosts
    the world’s largest online collection of books, articles, and other library
    resources. Put together and edited by trained librarians, Questia’s 76,000 full
    text books and millions of scholarly articles are great sources for research
    papers.

  10. books and periodicals in thousands of libraries at once.
    to figure out where to find the resources you need. WorldCat lets you search for
    largest library catalog, WorldCat lets you search libraries all over the world
     – The world’sWorldCat

User-Contributed Reference Sites

Wikipedia is the biggest
example of a site where the content is user-contributed, but there are plenty of
user-contributed reference sites to choose from besides
Wikipedia.

 

  1.  – Duno
    to an advertising program.
    know.” Contributors to duno.com get paid for the information they share thanks
    content from amateurs and professionals alike, Duno.com is short for “I don’tUser generated

  2. eHow – At eHow.com, regular
    Joes like you and me share their knowledge. That means that eHow contains a wide
    variety of expertise. Search for information on arts and crafts, scholarly
    research, and even extreme sports and mixed martial arts.

  3. Greekopedia – Since
    this list of Wikipedia alternatives is aimed at current and future college
    students, check out hundreds of articles on fraternity and sorority life at
    Greekopedia
    . Trust us, you’ll want to know all about the Greeks, whether you’re
    a frat boy or not.

  4. Instructables –
    Instructables hosts how-to videos on a huge range of topics. Unlike WikiHow, the
    content at Instructables must have a video to go along with it.

  5. Another universal
     –Internet
    Encyclopediawiki based content encyclopedia, Internet Encyclopedia (also
    known as Wikinfo) is different from Wikipedia in that it encourages the
    inclusion of unique research and opinions. It also requires that its editors
    provide objective and not opinion based content.

  6. Open-Site – Similar to
    Wikipedia, Open-Site is a free encyclopedia online with content contributed by
    users and lightly moderated by volunteer editors.

  7. wikiFAQ – Free FAQs on
    every topic under the sun are in the collection of wikiFAQ. Anyone can edit and
    contribute to any FAQ on the site, which uses light moderation to maintain
    accuracy.

  8. WikiHow – More than
    120,000 unique how-to articles make up the bulk of the information at WikiHow.
    Think of it as Wikipedia for how-to manuals.

  9. Wincyclopedia –
    Their slogan “Your directory to everything” is just about 100% true. Categories
    like “Health” and “Society” are further broken down into subcategories for quick
    browsing.

  10. medical knowledge.
    ,andpatientsand everyone in between come together to share their health
    Doctors,medical experience and opinions in one easily searchable database.
    the wiki model to health concerns, wikiHealth is like having a million people’s
     – ApplyingwikiHealth

Fine Arts Reference Materials

The Internet is not just for science nerds. The arts are well-represented on the Internet, too, and the following fine arts reference materials are also excellent alternatives to the Wikipedia (at least when you’re researching a paper for your art appreciation class.)

  1. All Music Guide – A
    blog, a gigantic collection of album reviews, and a companion site that helps
    you discover new music are the heart, soul, and brains of All Music Guide. Learn
    all about new music,
    classic music, and encyclopedic info about classical music
    and other styles.

  2. The  – The easiest
    way to look up quick details and information on artists, their body of artwork,
    and their history. You can also browse images of art and artists. Consider the
    Artchive like the IMDB of fine art.
    Artchive

  3. Artcyclopedia – An
    encyclopedia of fine arts and artists, Artcyclopedia allows you to search by
    artist, painting, titles, art period, and many other search categories. Helpful
    when you can only remember part of the name of a piece
    or art or an artist.

  4. DancePedia –
    DancePedia is an encyclopedia of links and online resources dedicated to all
    things dance, from profiles of famous dancers to information on the most current
    styles and trends in modern dance.

  5. Garland
    Encyclopedia of World Music
     – Interested in musical styles from around the
    world? You’ll have to register or be a student at a registered university to
    access the archives, but the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music is the most
    thoroughly researched and heavily informative site on world music.

  6. Improv
    Encyclopedia
     – Broken up into three sections–improv games, improv
    resources, and a huge improv glossary, Improv Encyclopedia is the ultimate
    collection of improv information on the Internet.

  7. Instrument
    Encyclopedia
     – The University of Michigan runs Instrument Encyclopedia, a
    resource of information on all sorts of musical instruments plus links to
    further online musical instrument resources.

  8. Internet Movie Database –
    Like an encyclopedia of movies combined with a movie news
    sites, Internet Movie
    Database (better known as IMDB) is the ultimate movie resource. Look up details
    on anyone that ever participated in the movies, from the lowliest camera tech to
    the most famous movie stars and directors.

  9. Musicals101 – There
    are literally thousands of encyclopedia entries on all sorts of musicals at
    Musicals101. Part reference site and part entertainment resource, fans of
    musicals will spend hours learning the ins and outs of their favorites.

  10. Oxford Music
    Online
     – If you’re doing any kind of music research, Oxford’s Music Online
    site is the place to start. A sort of gateway to all sorts of music research as
    well as a clearinghouse for music reference and scholarly articles published by
    Oxford University Press.

  1.  

Language, Literature, and Word Resources

Dictionaries, thesauri, and
other references related to the use of words and language are common on the Internet. Here are some of the best language resources online. A couple of these sites are also related to world literature.

 

  1. AskOxford – A word and
    language reference site built on the Oxford English Dictionary, the most trusted
    word reference in the world. AskOxford also includes grammar tips and the option
    of asking your grammar or language questions of experts from Oxford.

  2. Everything from Gray’s Anatomy to the latest bestsellerfiction
    textbook
    or research book for your next college class or research project.
    many great books online at Bartleby, you may find you don’t need to buy that
     – There are soBartlebyare collected
    all under one roof. Featuring reference, poetry, fiction, and nonfiction books
    to read for free.

  3. quick
    summaries of plots. Like Cliff’s Notes online, BookRags is the place to go for a
    collection of study guides, essays on books, biographies of writers, and
     – A bigBookRagsbrushup before a pop quiz or essay test.

  4. spice up a paper or piece of creative writing, isBrainyQuote
    citation of the quote itself. Still, when you need a good epigraph or quote to
    BrainyQuote isn’t always accurate, either in the wording of the quotes or the
     –BrainyQuotean easy to search
    database of famous quotes.

  5. and a few Dictionary.com
    – Another free online dictionary, dictionary.com is easy to use and easy on the

    eyesitsdictionarynot nearly as robust as Merriam Webster or the OED online. You
    can find the basic definitions and spellings of words, as
    well asacrossword
    ,word
    games

  6. thrown in for good measure.though

  7. and easy to
    religion, folklore, and even urban legends. Encyclopedia Mythica is a gorgeous
    The largest resource and link collection for all things related to mythology,
     –Encyclopedia Mythicaonline search engine and resource collection about myths and
    spirituality.use

  8. Merriam Webster
    – The best thing about Merriam Webster’s online dictionary is that its free.
    Users of the online Oxford English Dictionary only have limited access to word
    references without paying a pretty substantial fee.

  9. Urban Dictionary
    – A user-contributed resource for slang from all walks of life, Urban Dictionary
    is a massive reference for words not traditionally found in the dictionary.

  10. Visual Thesaurus
    – One of the coolest language sites online, Visual Thesaurus is just what the
    name implies, a thesaurus that maps out synonyms and antonyms visually. Look at
    a word’s synonyms and antonyms using a visual interactive map. Not free, but
    free to try.

  11. WordReference – A
    dictionary and reference tool for any word in English, Spanish, Italian, or
    French. WordReference is a must-bookmark site for students of language and
    writers alike.

Internet Reference Works

The following reference works vary in scope, but all of them have one thing in common: They’re absolutely essential for inclusion on any list of Internet reference works.

 

 

  1. The American
    Presidency Project
     – UC Santa Barbara runs The American Presidency Project,
    a massive resource of information about every American president and vice
    president. UCSB hosts more than 90,000 documents and provides them free to the
    public at this site.

  2. Bibliomania –
    Bibliomania hosts more than 2,000 classic book texts online for you to read,
    download, and search via their handy index.

  3. Encyclopedia
    Smithsonian
     – The complete online collection of everything the Smithsonian
    Museum system has, Encyclopedia Smithsonian lets users search through 2 million
    records with images, video and sound files. There are also links to electronic
    journal articles and other resources from the Smithsonian’s collection.

  4. Government Documents Center – The largest collection of
    government documents in one place, the library of the University of Michigan put
    this collection together as the best online resource for documents related to
    the US government.

  5. Martindale’s
    Reference Desk
     – The Martindale Reference Desk is a no nonsense reference
    tool broken up into sections like Language, Science, Business, and Mathematics.
    You can browse the different subject areas easily and have instant access to
    tens of thousands of links and other resources.

  6. NOLO Legal
    Dictionary
     – Calling itself a “plain English law dictionary,” NOLO offers
    definitions for most law terms in plain language. This free legal resource also
    hosts free and easy to understand legal information on hundreds of commonly used
    legal procedures.

  7. The Old Farmer’s Almanac
    – The Farmer’s Almanac has been published regularly since 1792. The online Old
    Farmer’s Almanac is even more resourceful than the print edition. Use the Old
    Farmer’s Almanac to research tide tables, phases of the moon, weather, planting
    charts, recipes, and good old-fashioned Farmer’s Almanac advice.

  8. The Open Directory Project
    – DMOZ is the most important Internet directory you’ve never heard of. The Open
    Directory Project is a web directory put together and maintained by humans on
    every topic imaginable, from Arts to Health to Sports. Links are looked over by
    real people and the site is updated regularly.

  9. Open Library – An
    ambitious project, Open Library is an Internet archiving project that hopes to
    put together a Web page for every book ever published. Nothing to sniff at, Open
    Library has already put together more than 20 million such records, all free to
    the public.

  10. Wolfram Library
    Archive
     – Experimental search engine Wolfram Alpha maintains a large archive
    at Wolfram Library Archive. There are thousands of viewable and downloadable
    resources from Wolfram Alpha research. Tied directly to the Wolfram Alpha search
    engine.

Medical Reference Websites

The Internet is no substitute for the care of a competent physician, but
there are plenty of useful medical reference websites available
online.

 


  1. volume of information that it warrants inclusion on the list. (Just keep in mind
    going to be useful as a citation in an academic paper, but it has such a large
    of drugs from the pharmacy to those made at home. This site is probably never
    structures of said drugs, and even bulletin boards and user forms on all sorts
    gigantic compendium of experiences with recreational drug use, chemical
    designed for recreational drug users and researchers into recreational drugs. A
     – Erowid.org isErowid
    it’s user-contributed information, so the reliability of the material is
    questionable.)
    that

  2. Genetics Home Reference
    – A guide to understanding genetic conditions, Genetics Home Reference is
    another health resource provided by the National Center for Biotechnology
    Information.

  3. MedicineNet – Their
    slogan is “We bring doctor’s knowledge to you.” This WebMD clone (now owned and
    operated by WebMD) is aimed more at doctor’s takes on medical conditions than

    user contributed resources.

  4. Medline Plus
    – The National Institutes of
    Health run this site with basic and more complex
    medical details, news, and information.

  5. MedScape – Featuring
    health news, doctor’s perspectives on health care, and free reprints and links
    to scholarly medical journals and other articles, MedScape is a great resource
    for everyone who ever has to deal with illness or medical care.

  6. Merck Medical Manuals – A huge collection of medical manuals
    available to medical professionals free of charge. Merck Medical Manuals is the
    largest such resource in the world.

  7. PDRHealth – This
    health website is run by the PDR, the Physician’s Desk Reference. The
    association with the PDR gives PDRHealth a little more resonance with people
    looking for health advice than a site like WebMD.com.

  8. PubChem – The
    NCBI (The National Center for Biotechnology Information) runs this free resource
    offering all kinds of details on chemical formulas, structures, and even genetic
    coding. PubChem is one of the only free resources for this biomedical and
    genomic information.

  9. RXList – Calling itself
    “the Internet drug list,” RXList is a must-have resource for anyone on
    prescription medication. RXList has a great feature called the pill identifier,
    where you put in the imprint on a pill and find out the name, dosage, and other
    details on any medication you find.

  10. WebMD – One of the most
    health news and resource sites online, WebMD sometimes forcatchespopularflack
    providing medical advice from an authoritative perspective that people may
    assume is actual medical advice. A huge resource of medical news, a symptom
    and all sorts of links and resources for people interested in healthchecker,
    topics.

Miscellaneous Reference Sites

 

These miscellaneous
reference sites round out our list ofWikipeda alternatives.

  1. Acronym Finder –
    Ever come across an acronym that you weren’t familiar with? Find any number of
    professional and amateur acronyms here, with an easy to usesearch function.

  2. Baseball
    Reference
     – Every sort of baseball stat and historical reference on baseball
    players,teams, and the sport of baseball as a whole is available at Baseball
    Reference.

  3. Catholic
    Encyclopedia
     – The largest collection of information on the Catholic
    religion is at Catholic Encyclopedia. Useful to more than just Catholics because
    of the huge impact Catholicism has had on every field on Earth from science to
    nutrition.

  4. The Educator’s Reference
    Desk
     – The Educator’s Reference Desk offers teachers and students tens of
    thousands of reference materials for lesson planning, classroom management,
    discipline, and a place to blow off steam.

  5. FreeAdvice – Not just
    for legal problems, FreeAdvice is a unique question and answer site where people
    go for free advice on topics from picking an outfit for a big date to real
    estateadvice.

  6. Library of
    Congress
     – All Americans should have easy access to the Library of Congress
    website because of the massive amount of resources and information right at your
    fingertips.

  7. NASA Images – An amazing
    collection of photographs and artist renderings created for and by NASA. A great
    resource for desktop photos, screensavers, and beautiful photos to accompany
    research projects and writing projects.

  8. Snopes – Snopes is more
    than just a fun place to read about urban legends and myths, it’s full of useful
    information and statistics on a wide variety of topics.

  9. Symbols.com – Tons of
    information about tens of thousands of symbols, their history, usage, and
    contemporary meanings at symbols.com.

  10. timeanddate –Historical information organized by time and date is available at–where else?–timeanddate.com. To find out what happened on any day or time in history,check out timeaddate.

 

© 2019 - 2024 Lmsk-Fmk  Updated Oct 2024

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